In the German speaking lands, six cities dominated printing: Cologne, Strasbourg, Leipzig, Basle, Augsburg, and Nuremberg.
Nuremberg Chronicle–The Ark
In the years following the appearance of Johannes Gutenberg’s Bible around 1455, printing spread through German speaking regions and other parts of Europe. The beginning of printing in Nuremberg is traced to the decade of the 1470s.
The Seven Sages, depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle 1493
Charles’s Golden Bull of 1356 named Nuremberg as the city where newly elected kings of Germany must hold their first Imperial Diet, making Nuremberg one of the three highest cities of the Empire, along with Frankfurt, where kings were elected, and Aachen, where Emperors were crowned and which had been the capital of the old Frankish Empire. The royal and Imperial connection was strengthened when Sigismund of Luxembourg granted the Imperial regalia to be kept permanently in Nuremberg in 1423.
The close personal relationship between Froben and Erasmus is perhaps unparalleled in the history of authors and their publishers. It was Renaissance humanism in its most perfect form. With the death of Froben in 1527, Erasmus expressed his personal loss and sorrow. His grief for the death of his close friend was more distressing than that which he had felt for the loss of his own brother.
a call for clarity, a delight in discovery, the fun of friendship, the ideal of internationalism, the love of learning, the rage for research.
The happy meeting of great minds is represented by the collaboration between Desiderius Erasmus, Johannes Froben, and Hans Holbein.
Froben was a printer in Basel who established the greatest Swiss publishing firm of the early sixteenth century. The house continued under the direction of his heirs and associates until 1587. A scholar himself, a master printer, and a successful businessman, he recognized the vitality of humanistic thinking. Before moving to Basel in 1490, Froben had worked as a printer in Nuremberg with Anton Koberger, the godfather of Albrecht Dürer. Three years later, he entered a partnership with Johannes Petri and the leading Basel printer of the preceding generation, Johannes Amerbach. After the death of his partners, Froben took full control of the press. In 1500 he married the daughter of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into a partnership with him. She ran the commercial side of the business, while Froben handled the authors and editors and the process of production. By 1510 his press had become the centre of a large circle of mostly German and Swiss humanist scholars.
In July 1514, Erasmus set out to meet Froben. The inclusion of Erasmus meant a major turning point for the firm. From about 1515, Froben was the main publisher used by Erasmus. In 1521, the latter moved from the Netherlands to Basel. It was Froben’s fine printing and humanistic scholarship that made him decide to make the move. It turned out to be a happy meeting of minds and skills. The greatest period of Froben’s work as a printer coincided with the years of his friendship with the celebrated scholar, the ‘prince of humanists’. Erasmus himself was delighted with the new environment in which he had settled. In a letter to Joannes Sapidus, he described his stay in Basel as ‘living in some charming sanctuary of the Muses, where a multitude of learned persons, and learned in no common fashion, appears a thing of course’. The vibrant intellectual climate and captivating atmosphere of the city inspired his finest work. The wandering scholar had found his home.
Froben was alert enough to offer Erasmus a fixed annual income of 200 gulden for his services and a fair share in the profits of the books produced. The two men entered into a proper business partnership. Working closely together, this relationship turned into a close friendship. Printing ancient texts demanded expert assistance. Manuscripts had to be obtained in the first place. When acquired, they needed to be evaluated (manuscripts were often in a poor state and before the invention of printing editors had not been particular careful with their texts), collated, and emendated. This task demanded scholarship of the highest level. Erasmus became the most eminent of ‘learned correctors’ at Froben’s publishing house. We think of Erasmus first and foremost as an author. Where did he gain his editorial skills?
Before moving to Basel, Erasmus had spent nine months in Venice with Aldus Manutius, the most famous printer in Europe. It was Aldus’s ambition to rescue from oblivion the work of the classical, especially Greek, writers. To this end he edited and printed those works for which workable manuscripts could be procured. His firm, named Ne-academia Nostra, employed many scholars who were involved with the deciphering of ancient manuscripts. Erasmus stayed with Aldus from January to September 1508. It was there that he learned the editorial trade by preparing an impressive number of texts, including editions of Plautus, Seneca, Terence, and Plutarch.
Portrait of the Book Printer Johann Froben. Oak, 395 × 335 mm, Basel, Kunstmuseum. Johann Froben was a noted book printer in Basel. He was a close associate of Desiderius Erasmus, whose works he published and who, for a time, was a guest at his home. Hans Holbein the Younger met Erasmus through Froben, for whom he designed many book illustrations. He may have painted the original in the early 1520s, prior to his departure for England in 1526. (Reference: Müller, et al, pp. 296–98.)
On 25 August 1517 Erasmus sent a letter from Louvain to Johann Froben in Basel. In it, he recommended the publication of More’s Utopia in combination with the Prolusions (the works were published together in the two 1518 – March and November – editions by Froben). If you think fit, Erasmus wrote, ‘let them go forth to the world and to posterity with the recommendation of being printed by you. For such is the reputation of your press, that for a book to be known to have been published by Froben, is a passport to the approbation of the learned’. Froben employed Hans Holbein to supply the woodcut borders to his edition. This border takes the form of a Renaissance niche flanked by columns in which putti play around a shield showing Froben’s printer’s mark with a bird perched on top. Holbein’s brother Ambrosius designed the alphabet letter within the text. The book proved to be an overwhelming success. By the middle of the century translations of the original Latin had appeared in German, Italian, French, and English.
During the third century, the Goths lived on the northeast border of the Roman Empire, in what is now Ukraine, Bulgaria and Romania. The first Greek references to the Goths call them Scythians, based on the name for this region along the Black Sea.
During the fourth century, the Goths were converted to Christianity, largely through the efforts of Bishop Wulfila, who invented the Gothic alphabet and translated the Bible into the Gothic language in Nicopolis ad Istrum in today’s northern Bulgaria. Portions of this translation survive, affording the main surviving text written in the Gothic language.
During the fifth century, the Goths overran parts of the Western Roman Empire, including Italy, southern France, and Spain. Gothic Christianity reigned in these areas for two centuries.
Wulfila, literally “Little Wolf”, was of Cappadocian Greek descent. His parents were captured by plundering Goths in 264. Raised as a Goth, he later became proficient in both Greek and Latin. He was ordained a bishop by Eusebius of Nicomedia and returned to work as a missionary, converted many among the Goths to Arian Christianity. When they reached the western Mediterranean, this set them apart from their orthodox neighbours and subjects.
To escape religious persecution, he obtained permission from Constantius II in 348 to migrate with his flock of converts and settle near Nicopolis ad Istrum in modern northern Bulgaria, where he translated the Bible from Greek into the Gothic language and devised the Gothic alphabet. Fragments of his translation have survived, notably the Codex Argenteus held since 1648 in the University Library of Uppsala in Sweden.
The Duchy of Friuli became a march of the Carolingian Empire after 774, when Charlemagne conquered the Kingdom of the Lombards. Land in southern Italy held by Lombard Dukes was claimed by two empires: the Carolingian Empire to the north and west and the Byzantine Empire to the east. The Lombards were Arian Christians from the valley of the Danube, where they had migrated from southern Scandinavia. In the Spring of 568 they had been joined by numerous Saxons, Bulgars, Ostrogoths, and Thuringians for the conquest of Italy.
The strategic importance of this coast on the Adriatic sea was recognised by Julius Caesar, who quartered his legions in Aquileia during winter. Diocletian moved the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Rome to Milan in 286. Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313, granting tolerance to all religions within the Empire. Aquileia became one of the most prestigious bishoprics, competing with Milan and Ravenna, for second place to Rome. Milan was besieged by the Goths in 492 and the Imperial residence was moved to Ravenna.
Attila the Hun forced Aquileia to surrender in 452 during an invasion that brought devastation and threatened Rome. The previous year Attila had been defeated at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in Gaul, after crossing the Rhine from Thuringia, which was a Hunnic vassal at the time. The original population of Venice consisted of refugees from Roman cities and the undefended countryside, who were fleeing successive invasions.
Henry IV assigned the marches of Carniola and Istria to the patriarchs of Aquileia as ecclesiastical Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The patriarchal state of Friuli was one of the best organized of the Middle Ages. A parliament representing the communes as well as the nobility and the clergy survived until 1805, when it was abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte.
Food culture has been enriched by the historical melting pot of peoples, languages and traditions.
The region spans a wide variety of climates and landscapes from the mild Mediterranean climate in the south to Alpine continental in the north.
The foremost white wine produced in this region is the dry and aromatic Tocai Friulano. The European Community demanded a name change, because of a confusion with Hungarian Tokaj and French Tokay.
Seafood dishes include crostacei e conchiglie (a crustacean and shellfish dish), specialities such as boreto from Grado, “scampi a la busara” from Istria, sardoni from the Gulf of Trieste and ribalta vapor from the Marano lagoon.
Montasio, smoked ricotta cheese with the taste of Alpine meadows is the best known cheese of the region and cheeses that are little known but much-loved, are formadi frant and Asìno.
Delicacies such as Sauris cured ham, cured ham from Cormòns, salami, speck (smoked ham), local bacon, brusaola and pitina, smoked meatball of sheep, goat or wild animal are all characteristic foods of the region.
WHO urges global action to curtail consumption and health impacts of sugary drinks.
Reduced consumption of sugary drinks means lower intake of “free sugars” and calories overall, improved nutrition and fewer people suffering from overweight, obesity, diabetes and tooth decay.
Free sugars refer to monosaccharides (such as glucose or fructose) and disaccharides (such as sucrose or table sugar) added to foods and drinks by the manufacturer, cook, or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices, and fruit juice concentrates.
Rising obesity levels in Europe could shorten the life expectancy of a generation.The European health report is a flagship publication, published every three years.
Developed the first practical process to manufacture carbonated mineral water, based on a process discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1770.
Born in Witzenhausen in the Landgraviate of Hessen-Kassel, he moved to Geneva in 1765 to work as a watchmaker and jeweler, and founded the Schweppes Company in Geneva in 1783. In 1831, King William IV of the United Kingdom adopted the beverage.
“Schweppes – The First 200 Years “ by Douglas Simmons, the late secretary of Schweppes and Cadbury Schweppes / UK.This earthenware bottle, initially designed to lay on its side to keep the cork moist, has the branding SCHWEPPES & Co: 79. Margaret Street, London. It was developed according to the concept of Jacob Schweppe and produced between 1795 and 1831. The instruction read: “In order to maintain the quality of the water the bottles should be kept in a cool place and lay on their side.”
The first world exhibition in London in 1851 was a welcome impetus to J. Schweppe & Co. The daringly conceived structure of glass and iron known as the Crystal Palace, built to house the exhibition, was erected in Hyde Park. Nearly 2000 feet long, it covered more than 18 acres, arching over several large elm trees. In the center, J. Schweppe & Co. built an 8 meter high fountain, which became an integral part of the trademark.
Barbara of Cilli (1392 – 11 July 1451) was Holy Roman Empress and a queen of Hungary and Bohemia. She received the sobriquet Messalina of Germany, and was instrumental in creating the Order of the Dragon. She served as the regent of Hungary in the absence of her spouse.
Barbara of Celje (Croatian and Slovene Barbara Celjska; Czech: Barbora Cellská; Hungarian Cillei Borbála)
The Old Castle Celje is situated on a narrow rocky overhang above Celje. The original castle was built in the second half of the 12th century by the Counts of Vovberg from Carinthia who had Celje and its surroundings in their possession up to their extinction in 1322. After a decade of battles, the castle came into the hands of their heirs (1333), the Lords of Žovnek, later the Counts of Celje.
An urban farm and social experiment where volunteers grew food, art, and community.
The project began in January 2010, when San Francisco’s Office of Economic and Workforce Development gave community members, artists, educators and permaculture designers an interim-use lease at 450 Laguna Street to activate the 2.2. acre lot for green space. The empty lot at Laguna Street and Fell was under the old 101 freeway on-ramp, which had been structurally damaged in the Loma Prieta Earthquake.
Hayes Valley Farm was a three-year experiment in activating public space for gardening, permaculture, art, education and community.
The lot was slated to be developed into condominiums within a few years. Learn more about the history of Hayes Valley Farm, the plants they grew, and the events and activities they stewarded (over 100 projects within three years).
Hayes Valley’s transformation started back in 2003, when a committed group of citizens succeeded in taking down the Central Freeway that had divided their neighborhood. The efforts paid off massively: Since then, the area’s seen major investment from local brands and restaurants. The mix of creative boutiques and shops makes for a very stroll-able shopping neighborhood, not to mention what’s become one of the best food scenes in the city.
Written by Martin Luther, “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott” has been called the “Battle Hymn of the Reformation” for the effect it had in increasing the support for the Reformers’ cause. John Julian records four theories of its origin:
Heinrich Heine: “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott” was sung by Luther and his companions as they entered Worms on 16 April 1521 for the Diet;
K. F. T. Schneider: it was a tribute to Luther’s friend Leonhard Kaiser, who was executed on 16 August 1527;
Jean-Henri Merle d’Aubigné: it was sung by the German Lutheran princes as they entered Augsburg for the Diet in 1530 at which the Augsburg Confession was presented; and
the view that it was composed in connection with the 1529 Diet of Speyer at which the German Lutheran princes lodged their protest to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who wanted to enforce his 1521 Edict of Worms.
Alternatively, John M. Merriman writes that the hymn “began as a martial song to inspire soldiers against the Ottoman forces” during the Ottoman wars in Europe, when the seven cities of Transylvania embraced the new creed of Martin Luther.
The Diet of Speyer was convened in March 1529, for action against the Turks, whose armies were pressing forward in Hungary, and would besiege Vienna later in the year, and against the further progress of Protestantism. On April 19, 1529, six princes and representatives of 14 Imperial Free Cities petitioned the Imperial Diet at Speyer against an imperial ban against Martin Luther, as well as the proscription of his works and teachings. After this Diet in Speyer the adherents of the reform movement became known as “Protestants”.
Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)
Colonists from Luxembourg and the Moselle River region had been invited in the mid-12th century to settle seven cities that gave Transylvania its German name Siebenbürgen (literally seven citadels) to provide border defence, mining expertise and develop the economy of the region. During the early 13th century, there was a second wave of settlers primarily from the Rhineland, Southern Low Countries, and the Moselle region, with others from Thuringia, Bavaria, and even from France.
Many settlements were destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241–42. In the aftermath of the invasion, many Transylvanian towns were fortified with stone castles about 300 villages were defended by Kirchenburgen, or fortified churches with massive walls. Though many of these fortified churches have fallen into ruin, south-eastern Transylvania region has one of the highest numbers of existing fortified churches from the 13th to 16th centuries.
Order of the Dragon
Founded in 1408 by Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and later Holy Roman Emperor, and his wife Queen Barbara of Celje. The Order of the Dragon was similar to other medieval chivalric orders and was granted to those defending Christianity against its enemies, particularly the Ottoman Turks. One of the recipients was a duke named Vlad, whose son is known today as Dracula, meaning son of the dragon.
This may come as a disappointment, but most Viking men brandished scythes, not swords. True, some were callous pirates who only stepped off their boats to burn villages, but the vast majority peacefully sowed barley, rye and oats—at least for part of the year. They also raised cattle, goats, pigs and sheep on their small farms, which typically yielded just enough food to support a family.
Vikings were known for their excellent hygiene.
Between rowing boats and decapitating enemies, Viking men must have stunk to high Valhalla, right? Quite the opposite. Excavations of Viking sites have turned up tweezers, razors, combs and ear cleaners made from animal bones and antlers. Vikings also bathed at least once a week—much more frequently than other Europeans of their day—and enjoyed dips in natural hot springs.
Vikings were active in the slave trade.
Many Vikings got rich off human trafficking. They would capture and enslave women and young men while pillaging Anglo-Saxon, Celtic and Slavic settlements. These “thralls,” as they were known, were then sold in giant slave markets across Europe and the Middle East. Vikings explored Europe by its oceans and rivers through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, and Anatolia.
Source: 10 Things You May Not Know About the Vikings – History Lists
