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Bernhard chose the town of Meiningen as his residence and became the first Duke of Saxe-Meiningen as the result of the various succession agreements among the seven sons of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe-Gotha. On his death in 1675, each of his sons inherited part of his holdings, and were expected to rule under the leadership of his oldest son.
Bernhard received the town of Meiningen as well as several other holdings and the former Franconian lands of the House of Henneberg. Before the Reformation territory of the Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen belonged to the Diocese of Würzburg.
Later agreements increased the territory of the duchy. Following the extinction of the Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg in 1825, Duke Bernhard II of Saxe-Meiningen received the lands of the former Duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen as well as the Saalfeld territory of the former Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld duchy. Bernhard was a younger brother of Queen Adelaide of the United Kingdom and Ida, Princess Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.
A niece of Emperor Otto III, who was instrumental to her betrothal to the son and heir of the King of Poland.
Her brother Otto, the last male representative of the Ezzonen dynasty, died on 7 September 1047. At his funeral in Brauweiler Abbey, according to Bruno of Toul (later Pope Leo IX), she put her fine jewellery on the altar and declared that she would spend the rest of her life as a nun, to preserve the memory of the Ezzonen dynasty. Brauweiller Abbey had been founded and endowed in 1024 by her parents, who were buried there, as were her brothers Liudolf, Count Palatine of Lotharingia (d. 1031) and Otto II, Duke of Swabia (d. 1047).
A charter dated 17 July 1051 noted that Richeza participated in the reorganization of the Ezzonen properties with her sister Theophanu, Abbess of Essen, and her brother, Hermann II, Archbishop of Cologne. This reorganization, which apparently emanated from the hope that Hermann II would survive his siblings, failed, because he died in 1056. From Ezzo’s ten children only Richeza and Otto had children. None of these children was in a position of real power over the Ezzonen inheritance.
Richeza formally renounced her possessions in Coburg and Saalfeld to the of the Diocese of Würzburg, while reserving the lifelong use of the lands. She maintained direct rule over Coburg, Saalfeld and seven other locations in the Rhineland with their additional incomes. Richeza died on 21 March 1063 in Saalfeld.
The first documentary mention of Coburg occurs in 1056, in a gift by Richeza of Lotharingia to the Archbishop of Cologne, to allow the creation of Saalfeld Abbey. In 1075, a chapel dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul is mentioned at the Coburg fortress. This document also refers to a Vogt named Gerhart, implying that the local possessions of the Saalfeld Benedictines were administered from the hill.
In the 13th century, the hill overlooked the important trade route from Nuremberg via Erfurt to Leipzig. At the time, the town was controlled by the Dukes of Merania (or Meran). They were followed in 1248 by the Counts of Henneberg who ruled Coburg until 1353, save for a period from 1292-1312, when the House of Ascania (Askanien) was in charge.
In 1353, Coburg fell to Friedrich, Markgraf von Meißen of the House of Wettin. His successor, Friedrich der Streitbare was awarded the status of Elector of Saxony in 1423. Coburg was now referred to as “Saxony”. The fortifications of the Veste were expanded in 1430 as a result of the Hussite Wars.
In 1485, in the Partition of Leipzig, Veste Coburg fell to the Ernestine branch of the family. A year later, Elector Friedrich der Weise took over the rule of Coburg.
Johann der Beständige used the Veste as a residence from 1499. From April to October 1530, during the Diet of Augsburg, Martin Luther sought protection at the Veste, as he was under an Imperial ban at the time. Whilst he stayed at the fortress, Luther continued with his work translating the Bible into German.
The medieval historian Lambert of Hersfeld, held that Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne founded the Benedictine monastery of St. Peter and Paul in 1074 with religious independence and a bequest of land and assets. Pope Honorius II in 1124 confirmed the founding, as did the Archbishop of Mainz the following year.
Saalfeld Abbey set up houses of prayer (Propsteien) at Coburg from 1075 and at Probstzella. The monastery became a centre of ecclesiastical power in Thuringia.
The town grew after the Counts of Schwarzburg received Saalfeld in 1208 from Otto IV. Saalfeld was purchased in 1389 by the Counts of Thuringia remained a possession of the House of Wettin. At the end of the 14th century, Saalfeld was on the trade route leading north from Nuremberg to Leipzig.
The abbey was severely damaged during the German Peasants’ War in 1525, secularised in 1526 during the Reformation and sold in 1532 to the House of Wettin. The surviving buildings were used as offices for the Electoral administration.
Ducal palace built on the site of the former Benedictine abbey, the residence of the Dukes of Saxe-Saalfeld from 1680 to 1735.
The Duke of Saxe-Gotha, Ernest the Pious, died on 26 March 1675. The Principality was divided on 24 February 1680 among his seven surviving sons. The lands of Saxe-Saalfeld went to the youngest of them, who became John Ernest IV (1658–1729), the Duke of Saxe-Saalfeld and were united with Coburg in 1699
Francis succeeded his father as reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in 1800. Emperor Francis II dissolved the Holy Roman Empire on 6 August 1806, after its defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. Duke Francis died 9 December 1806. On 15 December 1806, Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, along with the other Ernestine duchies, entered the Confederation of the Rhine as the Duke and his ministers planned
Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg died in 1825 without an heir. This resulted in a rearrangement of the Ernestine duchies. Ernest received Gotha on 12 November 1826, but had to cede Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen.
I always loved being here, I believe it comes from the harmony of everything around here … (Goethe to Schiller, Ilmenau, August 29th, 1795)
A village may have been founded on this floodplain of the Ilm river by St. Peter’s monastery of Saalfeld, which coordinated the settlement of this part of Thuringia.
First recorded in 1273 as a village belonging to the Counts of Käfernburg, Ilmenau passed in 1302 to the Counts of Schwarzburg.
A castle was built here in 1320 by the Counts of Schwarzburg, after an important trade route from Nuremberg in the south to Erfurt in the north was relocated near Ilmenau.
The Schwarzburgs founded a planned town (relatively similar to Königsee) and Ilmenau got its municipal rights in 1341. The name comes from the German words Ulmen (i.e. Elms) and Aue (i.e. floodplain), in reference to the floodplain of the Ilm river, which was covered with elms before the foundation of the town.
The Schwarzburgs sold their new town in 1343 to the Counts of Henneberg, who mortgaged Ilmenau often to other houses like the Schwarzburgs (1351–1420 and 1445–1464), the Witzlebens (1420–1434) and the Schaumbergs (1476–1498).
The Duke Saxe Weimar appointed Johann Wolfgang Goethe in 1776 to look after the finances of the town and the revival of silver and copper mining.
Nothing compares to having a place at the table, influencing changes that will shape the future.
Diversity is one of the fundamental properties for survival of species, populations and organizations. Diversity affects what products get built, who they are designed to serve, and who benefits from their development.
Contributions from creative men and women of all backgrounds are crucial to realise our goals and encourage a more diverse future. Discriminating by race and gender to limit access to employment and education is suboptimal for a society that wants to achieve greatness.
AI algorithms recapitulate biases contained in the data on which they are trained.
Training datasets may contain historical traces of intentional systemic discrimination, biased decisions due to unjust differences in human capital among groups and unintentional discrimination, or they may be sampled from populations that do not represent everyone.
Systems that use physical appearance as a proxy for character or interior states are deeply suspect, including AI tools that claim to detect sexuality from headshots, predict ‘criminality’ based on facial features, or assess worker competence via ‘micro-expressions.’ Such systems are replicating patterns of racial and gender bias in ways that can deepen and justify historical inequality.
The commercial deployment of these tools is cause for deep concern.
This report is the culmination of a year long pilot study examining the scale of AI’s current diversity crisis and possible paths forward. This report draws on a thorough review of existing literature and current research working on issues of gender, race, class, and artificial intelligence.
The review was purposefully scoped to encompass a variety of disciplinary and methodological perspectives, incorporating literature from computer science, the social sciences, and humanities.
It represents the first stage of a multi-year project examining the intersection of gender, race, and power in AI, and will be followed by further studies and research articles on related issues.
The Diocese of Bamberg was established at the 1007 synod in Frankfurt, at the behest of Henry II, to further expand the spread of Christianity in the Franconian lands. Henry became king of Germany in 1002 and Holy Roman emperor in 1014. He wanted the celebrated monkish rigour and studiousness of the Hildesheim cathedral chapter, where Henry himself was educated, linked together with the churches under his control, including his favourite bishopric of Bamberg.
The next seven bishops were appointed by the Holy Roman Emperors, after which election by the cathedral chapter became the rule, as in all the German prince-bishoprics.
Bishop Suidger of Morsleben, became pope in 1046 as Clement II. He was the only pope to be interred north of the Alps at the Bamberg Cathedral.
Bishop Otto of Bamberg (d. 1139) became known as the “Apostle of the Pomeranians”.
The bishops obtained the status of Imperial immediacy about 1245 and ruled their estates as Prince-bishops until they were subsumed to the Kingdom of Bavaria in the course of the German Mediatisation in 1802.
In the course of the German Mediatisation of 1802/3 the prince-bishopric of Bamberg with an area of 3,580 km² and a population of 207,000 was annexed to Bavaria.
The 39th bishop, Georg Schenk von Limpurg had a procedure for the judgment of capital crimes (Halsgerichtsordnung) drawn up by Johann of Schwarzenberg in 1507, which later became a model for the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina agreed at the 1530 Diet of Augsburg. Bishop Georg, though a confidant of Emperor Maximilian I, was inclined toward the Reformation movement of Martin Luther.
During the Peasants’ War over 70 manors and several monasteries were destroyed. When the troubles began, the chapter had more rights than ever before, but now existential questions about their position were being posed. Although some of the canons may have sympathized with the Protestant faith, the demands of the peasant, which implied disempowering the canons, met with fierce resistance.
The city suffered severely in the Second Margrave War (1552–54), when large parts of the bishopric were occupied. After the war, the bishop had the Forchheim Fortress erected.
From 1609 onwards Prince-Bishop Johann Gottfried von Aschhausen, also elected Bishop of Würzuburg in 1617, and his successor Johann Georg Fuchs von Dornheim enacted stern Counter-Reformation measures.
The Bamberg estates were devastated in the Thirty Years’ War. Bishop Johann Georg fled to his remote Carinthian esates in 1631. His successor Franz von Hatzfeld was likewise expelled, when the Bamberg and Würzburg bishoprics was placed under the jurisdiction of Prince Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, who obtained the title of a “Duke of Franconia” from the hands of the Swedish chancellor Axel Oxenstierna in 1633.
At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the prince-bishops recovered their possessions.
From 1500 onwards, the Bamberg territory was bordered, among others, by the Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg to the west, by the Hohenzollern margraviate of Brandenburg-Ansbach and the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg to the south, by the margraviate of Brandenburg-Bayreuth to the east and by the Wettin duchy of Saxe-Coburg to the north. During the 18th century, it was often held in conjunction with the neighbouring Diocese of Würzburg, whose rulers since 1168 claimed the archaic title of a “Duke of Franconia”.
The Prince-bishopric was also vested with large possessions within the Duchy of Carinthia that were strategically important for crossing the Eastern Alps, including the towns of Villach, Feldkirchen, Wolfsberg and Tarvis, located at the trade route to Venice, as well as Kirchdorf an der Krems in the Archduchy of Austria. Highly indebted by the burdens of the Seven Years’ War, the prince-bishops sold the Carinthian estates to their Habsburg allies in 1759.
In 765, the first documented mention of the Frankish village was recorded in the Lorsch Codex, in connection with an endowment by Charlemagne to the Lorsch Abbey. Further portions of Oppenheim were added to the endowment in 774. In 1008, Oppenheim was granted market rights.
In October 1076 Oppenheim gained special importance in the Investiture Controversy. At the princely session of Trebur and Oppenheim, the princes called on King Henry IV to undertake the “Walk to Canossa”. After Oppenheim was returned to the Empire in 1147, it became a Free Imperial City in 1225, during the Staufer Emperor Frederick II’s. At this time, the town was important for its imperial castle and the Burgmannen who lived there.
In the 14th century, the town was pledged to the Electorate of Mainz and beginning in 1398, it belonged to the territory of the Electoral Palatinate.
In 1621, the Oppenheim town chronicle reports a great fire in which the Oppenheim Town Hall was almost completely destroyed.
Restoration of St. Catherine’s Church to its Gothic form was in three building phases: 1836-1846, 1879-1889 and 1934-1937.
The Katharinenkirche (St. Catherine’s church) in Oppenheim is regarded as an important Gothic church building on the Rhine, along with the cathedrals of Cologne and Strasbourg. Construction began probably in 1225, when Oppenheim was granted Town privileges.
Bartholomäus Fröwein was born in the Free City of Nürnberg and entered the Cistercian monastery of Ebrach between 1360 and 1370. He was chosen in 1426 by the Ebrach monks as their new Abbot. He was consecrated by the prelate of the daughter monastery of Heilsbronn.
Epitaph des Abtes Bartholomäus Fröwein von Kloster Ebrach, Klosterkirche Ebrach, Amtszeit 1426-1430
The first Cistercian monastery in Germany was founded in 1127 by the Brothers Berno and Richwin (fränkische Edelfreie) in the wooded Ebrach valley of Upper Franconia between Bamberg and Würzburg.
Extensive donations of the Franconian nobility established the prosperity of the monastery. The Burggraf zu Nürnberg Friedrich III. and his son Johann I presented the monastery with various estates, as did Grafen Heinrich and Friedrich von Castell. Ludwig von Windheim gave his possessions at Burgwindheim to this monastery.
Most of the benefactors of the monastery found their final resting place within its walls. Other Houses of this monastery were in Schweinfurt, Rödelsee, Bamberg and Mainstockheim.
